Editorial Type:
Article Category: Research Article
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Online Publication Date: 01 Jun 2013

Carotenoids and Skin Coloration in a Social Raptor

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Page Range: 174 – 184
DOI: 10.3356/JRR-12-46.1
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Abstract

The outcome of social and sexual competition in animals is typically mediated through the expression of body traits. Conspicuous characters such as yellow, orange, and red colorations in skin, scales, and feathers are often posited as quality-dependent signals, because such colors are made of dietary carotenoids and their use for signaling conflicts with health functions. Raptors often lack brightly colored feathers but most diurnal species display intense orange and yellow hues in the cere and legs. Here we test the hypothesis that integument coloration functions as a signal of status in wild raptors, revealing availability of carotenoid pigments. As study model we used the Black Kite (Milvus migrans), a highly social, long-lived, and sexually monogamous Accipitriform. Regular trapping of adults throughout the breeding season revealed that circulating carotenoid levels were highest in breeding males, whereas breeding females and floaters showed moderate and statistically similar carotenoid titers. Plasma levels of carotenoids showed a slight seasonal decline, especially marked in post-laying females. Leg and cere colorations were visually assessed through comparison to a color chart, yielding a very high interobserver reliability and consistency with simultaneous spectrophotometric measures. Integument color was similar between the sexes, brighter in breeders compared to floaters, and positively related to circulating carotenoids, but only in the floaters. These results suggest that the physiological regulation of signal expression is different in breeders and floaters, possibly involving a costly social or physiological mechanism that ensures the honesty of coloration as a quality-dependent signal. In addition, breeding males and females displayed similar color scores despite strong differences in plasma carotenoids, indicating sex-related differences in physiological regulation that were not apparent in floaters. Our results are consistent with a role of integument coloration in status signaling in wider competitive contexts than those enforced by sexual selection. The reported patterns of coloration can be ultimately explained by two alternative, non-mutually exclusive hypotheses: (1) the lower coloration displayed by floaters reflects underlying physiological limitations and mediates the access to breeding resources through social competition (constraint hypothesis), and (2) young floaters have evolved mechanisms to restrain color expression and thus signal their competitive inferiority, avoiding physiological and social costs (restraint hypothesis).

Resumen

El resultado de la competencia social y sexual en animales es a menudo facilitado por la expresión de caracteres corporales. Las tonalidades amarillas, anaranjadas y rojas que colorean la piel, escamas o plumas de los vertebrados suelen funcionar como señales indicadoras de la calidad del individuo, pues dependen de la ingesta de pigmentos carotenoides y su utilización ornamental impide otros usos relacionados con la salud. Las aves rapaces suelen carecer de plumajes vivamente coloreados, pero la mayoría de las especies diurnas muestran intensas tonalidades amarillas y anaranjadas en la piel de la cera y las patas. En el presente estudio comprobamos la hipótesis de que la coloración del tegumento funciona como una señal de estatus social en rapaces silvestres, revelando la disponibilidad de pigmentos carotenoides. Como modelo de estudio utilizamos a Milvus migrans, un Accipitriforme altamente social, longevo y monógamo. La captura y muestreo regular de adultos a lo largo de la estación de cría mostró niveles máximos de carotenoides circulantes en los machos reproductores, mientras que las hembras y los individuos flotantes tuvieron niveles moderados y estadísticamente similares. Las concentraciones plasmáticas de carotenos sufrieron una ligera disminución estacional, especialmente marcada en las hembras reproductoras tras la época de puesta. La coloración de las patas y la cera fue estimada visualmente por comparación con una tabla de colores, mostrando una elevada repetición entre observadores y siendo consistente con mediciones espectrofotométricas realizadas en los mismos sujetos. La coloración del tegumento fue similar en machos y hembras, fue más elevada en aves reproductoras que en flotantes, y estuvo positivamente asociada a los niveles de carotenoides plasmáticos de aves flotantes. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la regulación fisiológica de la coloración externa es diferente en aves reproductoras y flotantes, y posiblemente implica mecanismos costosos de naturaleza social o fisiológica que aseguran el mantenimiento del color como una señal honesta de calidad. Además, los machos y las hembras reproductivas mostraron coloraciones similares a pesar de diferir significativamente en los niveles de carotenoides circulantes, evidenciando un dimorfismo sexual en la regulación fisiológica que no fue aparente en el grupo de aves flotantes. Nuestros resultados son consistentes con un papel de la coloración tegumentaria en la señalización del estatus en contextos competitivos amplios, no exclusivamente enfocados a los procesos de selección sexual. Los patrones de coloración aquí mostrados pueden ser en último término explicados por dos hipótesis alternativas y no excluyentes, a saber: (1) la menor intensidad de coloración de los flotantes manifiesta limitaciones fisiológicas que impiden su acceso a los recursos reproductivos mediante competencia (hipótesis de “constricción”), y (2) los jóvenes flotantes han desarrollado adaptaciones para restringir su expresión de color y así mostrar su inferioridad competitiva, evitando costos fisiológicos y/o sociales que aseguran la honestidad de estas señales (hipótesis de “restricción”).

Copyright: © 2013 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc. 2013
Figure 1
Figure 1

(A) Reflectance pattern of the integument of Black Kites' legs (average ±SE values across 35 intervals of 10 nm; n  =  25 birds) in the spectrum range 360–700 nm according to a Minolta CM-2500c spectrophotometer. (B) Average (±1 SE) levels of carotenoid saturation sensuMontgomerie 2006 (ratio between the total reflectance in the interval 550–700 nm and total brightness) in Black Kites' legs as a function of color scoring performed by visual comparison to a color chart (n  =  25 birds). (C) Average (±1 SE) levels of carotenoid chroma sensuAndersson and Prager 2006 (difference in reflectance between 700 nm and 450 nm divided by the reflectance at 700 nm) in Black Kites' legs as a function of color scoring performed by visual comparison to a color chart (n  =  25 birds).


Figure 2
Figure 2

Mean ± SE circulating levels of carotenoids in relation to sex and status of Black Kites during the pre- and post-laying stages of the breeding cycle. Breeders and floaters are represented by circles and squares, respectively. Males and females are represented by filled and open symbols, respectively.


Figure 3
Figure 3

Total skin color score (sum of cere and leg scores, estimated by comparison to a color chart) in Black Kites, as a function of circulating levels of carotenoids (log-carotenoids ng/ml) in breeders (circles) and floaters (asterisks). Regression lines are shown for floaters (thin line) and all birds cumulated (thick line).


Figure 4
Figure 4

Mean ± SE total skin color score (sum of cere and leg scores, estimated by comparison to a color chart) in relation to sex and status of Black Kites during the pre- and post-laying stages of the breeding cycle. Breeders and floaters are represented by circles and squares, respectively. Males and females are represented by filled and open symbols, respectively.


Contributor Notes

Associate Editor: Vincenzo Penteriani

Email address: julioblas@ebd.csic.es
Received: 28 Aug 2012
Accepted: 08 Jan 2013
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