Local Weather Explains Annual Variation in Northern Goshawk Reproduction in the Northern Great Basin, USA
Weather is thought to influence raptor reproduction through effects on prey availability, condition of adults, and survival of nests and young; however, there are few long-term studies of the effects of weather on raptor reproduction. We investigated the effects of weather on Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis; henceforth goshawk) breeding rate, productivity, and fledging date in south-central Idaho and northern Utah, USA. Using data from 42 territories where we found evidence of breeding attempts in ≥1 yr from 2011–2019, we analyzed breeding rates using 315 territory–season combinations, analyzed productivity for 134 breeding attempts, and analyzed fledging date for 118 breeding attempts. We examined 35 predictor variables from four categories: precipitation, temperature, wind, and snowpack. Of the variables we evaluated, April precipitation, previous year's April–July precipitation, April–May mean temperature, and March–May mean temperature were related to measures of goshawk reproduction. Greater April–July precipitation in the previous year and lower April precipitation in the current year were associated with higher breeding rates. Years with warmer average April–May temperatures were associated with increased goshawk productivity. Years with greater April–July precipitation during the previous year and lower mean March–May temperatures were associated with later fledging dates. Based on these relationships, we considered projected changes in weather in the northern Great Basin over the next 50 yr as a result of climate change (without directly accounting for habitat changes caused by climate change), and predicted that climate change will: (a) have no significant effect on goshawk breeding rate, (b) have a positive effect on goshawk productivity, and (c) cause a shift toward earlier goshawk breeding. Our results indicate that weather is significantly related to goshawk reproduction in the northern Great Basin, and we suggest that the relationship between raptor breeding and weather be further investigated to enable higher resolution predictions of how changes in the climate may influence their populations, particularly changes that may not have been captured by our study. El Clima Local Explica la Variación Anual en la Reproducción de Accipiter Gentilis en el Norte de la Gran Cuenca, Eeuu Se considera que el clima influye en la reproducción de las rapaces a través de su efecto sobre la disponibilidad de presas, la condición de los adultos y la supervivencia de los nidos y los polluelos; sin embargo, hay pocos estudios a largo plazo de los efectos del clima sobre la reproducción de las rapaces. Investigamos los efectos del clima sobre la tasa reproductiva, la productividad y la fecha de emplumamiento de Accipiter gentilis en el sur-centro de Idaho y norte de Utah, EEUU. Usando datos procedentes de 42 territorios donde encontramos evidencia de intentos reproductivos en ≥1 año desde 2011–2019, analizamos las tasas reproductivas usando 315 combinaciones de territorio y estación, analizamos la productividad para 134 intentos reproductivos y analizamos la fecha de emplumamiento para 118 intentos reproductivos. Examinamos 35 variables predictivas de cuatro categorías: precipitación, temperatura, viento y manto de nieve. De las variables que evaluamos, la precipitación de abril, la precipitación de abril-julio del año previo, la temperatura media de abril-mayo y la temperatura media de marzo-mayo estuvieron relacionadas con las medidas de la reproducción de A. gentilis. Una mayor precipitación en abril-julio del año previo y una menor precipitación del corriente año estuvieron asociadas con tasas reproductivas más altas. Los años con temperaturas promedio más elevadas en abril-mayo estuvieron asociados con un aumento de la productividad de A. gentilis. Los años con mayor precipitación en abril-julio del año previo y con menores temperaturas medias en marzo-mayo estuvieron asociados con fechas de emplumamiento más tardías. Tomando como base estas relaciones, consideramos a los cambios proyectados en el clima en el norte de la Gran Cuenca para los próximos 50 años como el resultado del cambio climático (sin considerar directamente los cambios de hábitat causados por el cambio climático), y predijimos que el cambio climático: (a) no tendrá un efecto significativo en la tasa reproductiva de A. gentilis, (b) tendrá un efecto positivo en la productividad de A. gentilis, y (c) causará un cambio hacia una reproducción más temprana de A. gentilis. Nuestros resultados indican que el clima está significativamente relacionado con la reproducción de A. gentilis en el norte de la Gran Cuenca, y sugerimos que la relación entre su reproducción y el clima sea investigada con más profundidad para permitir predicciones más precisas de cómo los cambios en el clima pueden influir en sus poblaciones, particularmente aquellos cambios que pueden no haber sido considerados en nuestro estudio. [Traducción del equipo editorial]ABSTRACT
RESUMEN

Northern Goshawk study areas in Minidoka Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest in the northern Great Basin in south-central Idaho and northern Utah, USA (left); with five isolated divisions highlighted (right).

Predicted relationship between Northern Goshawk breeding rate and (a) cumulative April precipitation; and (b) previous year's April–July precipitation from the best-supported model of Northern Goshawk breeding rate within the Minidoka Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest in the northern Great Basin in Idaho and Utah, USA, 2011–2019. Black line = model prediction; gray area = 95% confidence interval; and points = data used to build the model with point size relative to the number of similar values.

Predicted relationship between Northern Goshawk productivity (fledglings per breeding attempt) and mean April–May temperature from best-supported model of Northern Goshawk productivity within the Minidoka Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest in the northern Great Basin in Idaho and Utah, USA, 2011–2019. Black line = model prediction; gray area = 95% confidence interval; and points = data used to build the model.

Predicted relationship between Northern Goshawk fledging date and (a) previous year's April–July precipitation; and (b) mean March–May temperature from best-supported model of Northern Goshawk fledging date within the Minidoka Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest in the northern Great Basin in Idaho and Utah, USA, 2011–2019. Black line = model prediction; gray area = 95% confidence interval; and points = data used to build the model.

Predicted trends from best-supported models of Northern Goshawk (a) breeding rate; (b) productivity; and (c) fledging date using weather data from the Hadley Centre Global Environment Earth System Model version 2 and Representative Conservation Pathway (RCP) 8.5 climate model over the next 50 yr for the 42 Northern Goshawk territories within the Minidoka Ranger District, Sawtooth National Forest in the northern Great Basin in Idaho and Utah, USA. Black line = linear regression line of yearly predictions; gray area = 95% confidence interval for the regression line (Does not include climate model uncertainty). There was no trend for breeding rate, but a positive trend for productivity and a negative trend for fledging date.
Contributor Notes
1 Email address: allysonbangerter1@mail.weber.edu
Associated Editor: David E. Andersen