Editorial Type:
Article Category: Research Article
 | 
Online Publication Date: 20 Apr 2023

Factors Influencing Prevalence and Intensity of Haemosporidian Infection in American Kestrels in the Nonbreeding Season on the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico

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Page Range: 275 – 290
DOI: 10.3356/JRR-22-74
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Abstract

Overwintering areas can act as reservoirs for haemosporidians, and their blood-sucking vectors may easily survive and flourish in warm climates. The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) is a small-sized raptor that includes both resident and migratory individuals that overwinter in agriculture areas of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. We measured and collected blood samples from 54 individual kestrels captured in a fragmented habitat located within a matrix of agricultural and native scrub in the southern part of the peninsula during the autumn and winter of 2018–2019 and 2019–2020. We identified and quantified haemosporidians in blood smears of each individual. We used decision tree classification models of prevalence and intensities of haemosporidians to assess the importance of season, host body size, and environmental characteristics of the capture site (proximity to the nearest infected host, number of ponds used for irrigation, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index [NDVI], distance to the edge of the agricultural matrix, and distance to the nearest city). Overall prevalence was 42.6%, with an average intensity of 2.4 haemosporidian-infected cells per 2000 erythrocytes. Most haemosporidians (91.3%) were identified as Haemoproteus tinnunculi, and the rest as Plasmodium spp. The prevalence of haemosporidians increased with pond availability, the distance from the edge of the agricultural matrix, and the proximity of infected individuals. Parasite intensity increased with the availability of ponds, the distance to the edge of the agriculture matrix, and the NDVI. Spatial and temporal patterns of parasite prevalence and intensity illustrated local infection dynamics, suggesting a complex scenario of haemosporidian transmission in migratory and resident kestrels.

Resumen

Factores Que Influyen en la Prevalencia y la Intensidad de Hemosporidios en Falco Sparverius en la Época No Reproductiva en la Península de Baja California, México

Las áreas de invernada pueden actuar como reservorios de hemosporidios, y sus vectores hematófagos pueden sobrevivir y prosperar fácilmente en climas cálidos. Falco sparverius es una rapaz de pequeño tamaño que incluye individuos tanto residentes como migratorios que invernan en áreas agrícolas de la península de Baja California, México. Medimos y tomamos muestras de sangre de 54 individuos de F. sparverius capturados en un hábitat fragmentado ubicado dentro de una matriz agrícola y matorral nativo en la parte sur de la península durante el otoño e invierno de 2018–2019 y 2019–2020. Identificamos y cuantificamos hemosporidios en frotis de sangre de cada individuo. Utilizamos modelos de clasificación de árboles de decisión sobre las prevalencias e intensidades de hemosporidios para evaluar la importancia de la estación, el tamaño del cuerpo del hospedador y las características ambientales del sitio de captura (proximidad al hospedador infectado más cercano, número de estanques utilizados para riego, índice de vegetación de diferencia normalizada [NDVI por sus siglas en inglés], distancia al borde de la matriz agrícola y distancia a la ciudad más cercana). La prevalencia global fue del 42.6%, con una intensidad media de 2.4 células infectadas con hemosporidios por cada 2000 eritrocitos en individuos infectados. La mayoría de los hemosporidios (91.3%) se identificaron como Haemoproteus tinnunculi y el resto como Plasmodium spp. La prevalencia de hemosporidios aumentó con la disponibilidad de estanques, la distancia desde el borde de la matriz agrícola y la proximidad de individuos infectados. La intensidad parasitaria aumentó con la disponibilidad de estanques, la distancia al borde de la matriz agrícola y el NDVI. Los patrones espaciales y temporales de prevalencia e intensidad de parásitos ilustran una dinámica local de infección lo que sugiere un escenario complejo de transmisión de hemosporidios en individuos migratorios y residentes de F. sparverius.

[Traducción del equipo editorial]

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Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Study area at Valle de Santo Domingo, southern Baja California peninsula, Mexico. American Kestrel negative cases for haemosporidians (black dots); positive cases for Haemoproteus tinnunculi (white circles); and Plasmodium spp. (white triangles) during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 autumn/winter seasons.


Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Haemosporidian gametocytes. Top panel: Haemoproteus tinnunculi (a–b: intragametocytes; c: extragametocyte). Bottom panel: Plasmodium spp. (d-f: intragametocytes). Samples of blood smears from American Kestrels captured during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 autumn/winter seasons at Valle de Santo Domingo, southern Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Long arrows show gametocytes, short arrows show malarial particles, and scale bars = 20 µm.


Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Importance scores for each variable of split (% of divisions in which each predictor participated) for haemosporidians in blood smears of American Kestrels captured during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 autumn/winter seasons at Valle de Santo Domingo, southern Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Note: WP = water ponds, P = proximity to an infected individual, DB = distance to the border between the agriculture and continuous native vegetation, DU = distance to the nearest urbanization, NDVI = Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, IS = size of the individual kestrel, S = season, NV = quality of the spot of capture (natural vegetation vs. agriculture), and Y = year.


Figure 4.
Figure 4.

Importance scores of increasing node purity for variables used as predictors in random forest algorithm models of haemosporidian intensity, counted in blood smears of American Kestrels captured during the 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 autumn/winter seasons at Valle de Santo Domingo, southern Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Node purity (based on the Gini Impurity index) characterizes more homogeneous calls within partitions of the data. Note: WP = water ponds, NDVI = Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, DB = distance to the border between the agriculture and continuous native vegetation, P = proximity to an infected individual, DU = distance to the nearest urbanization, IS = size of the individual kestrel, Y = year, NV = quality of the spot of capture (natural vegetation vs. agriculture), and S = season.


Contributor Notes

Associate Editor: Christopher J. W. McClure

Received: 01 Jun 2022
Accepted: 20 Dec 2022
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